Quality in Higher Education:
Lessons Learned from the Baldrige Award,
Deming Prize, and ISO 9000 Registration
Mahyar Izadi
Eastern Illinois University
Ali E. Kashef
University of Northern Iowa
Ronald W. Stadt
Southern Illinois University at Carbondale
Increased
costs to producers, customers, and nations due to poor quality have
fostered renewed appreciation of the quality assurance function. Japan
initiated a quality revolution in the 1970s and has since received world
wider recognition for its achievements (Crosby, 1979).
The United States joined the quality race in the mid 1980s and has also made rapid advances (Walton, 1986).
More recently, Europeans have launched cooperative efforts to improve quality.
Today,
most managers recognize that quality must focus on linkages among
functions across entire organizations. This is a principle of Total
Quality Management (Deming, 1986). Total Quality Management (TQM) is a
management concept that focuses the collective efforts of all managers
and employees on satisfying customer expectations by continually
improving operations, management processes, and products (Berry, 1991).
TQM combines quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement
(Hoyle, 1994) and goes beyond traditional customer satisfaction by
addressing the needs of internal customers, suppliers, and other
stakeholders (Peach, 1994).
Because of the popularity of TQM, many
broadly accepted models promoting and improving quality have been
designed. Organizations believe that they should implement two or more
models to deliver quality products or service to their customers. The
Baldrige Award, Deming Prize, and ISO 9000 Registration are three among
many quality systems that may be taken together to establish excellent
TQM programs.
In 1987, President Ronald Reagan signed the Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Improvement Act, which provided for
recognition of quality improvement among manufacturing, service, and
small businesses. The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) is
the highest level of national recognition for quality that a United
States company can achieve (American Productivity and Quality Center,
1993).
The oldest, prestigious quality award is the Deming
Application Prize (Deming Prize) of the Union of Japanese Scientists and
Engineers (JUSE). Initiated in1951 and named after W. Edwards Deming,
the Deming Prize has long been recognized as an indicator of excellence
in business (Walton, 1986).
In 1987, the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) a Swiss-based organization composed of 92
member countries, published a series of global quality system standards.
These standards are called ISO 9000.
The American Society for
Quality Control (ASQC) defined the goal of ISO 9000 as "international
exchange of goods and services and development of cooperation into the
sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic
activity" (1991, p. 1).
ISO 9000 promotes standards to improve
productivity and reduce costs in the changing global marketplace. The
Baldrige Award in the U.S. (Kendrick, 1993a, 1993b, 1993c), the Deming
Prize in Japan, and the European Quality Award (Kochan, 1992) are
recognized as the highest dividends for focusing on total quality in
business, industrial, and (recently) educational settings.
In the
past, few attempts were made to improve the quality of management in
higher education, and goals were rarely identified or followed (Kerr,
1991).Quality in higher education has been defined to mean many things,
but few institutions have focused on quality management. Recently, the
quality of higher education has been severely questioned by the American
public and elected officials, but thus far no quality standard has been
determined (Hendricks, 1992). The purpose of this article is to examine
the three major industrial standards (i.e., Baldrige Award, Deming
Prize, and ISO 9000Registration) and consider how they can help
educational institutions and state education agencies plan for improving
the quality of their services andincrease their productivity.
Ideally,
educators should already be practising TQM principles; the concept has
applications for educators in virtually every aspect of their mission.
Faculty who diligently maintain currency in their fields through study,
research, and consulting, and who prepare for instruction through
detailed planning and execution are already practising TQM (Holt, 1993;
Lloyd & Rehg, 1983). Higher education should know that the Baldrige
Award is the most far-reaching and broad-range source of standards, that
the Deming Prize adds numerous opportunities for sophisticated
statistical analysis, and that ISO9000 examines details at operating
levels and entails periodic review and global recognition. Table 1 shows
the relationships among the three major quality systems and important
issues facing higher education.
Table 1
Quality Systems and Important Issues Facing Higher Education
System
Focus Important Issues for Higher Education
Baldrige
Award Customer
Satisfaction Customer Satisfaction and Retention
(i.e., Students, Employees, Parents, Alumni, Taxpayers)
Deming
Prize Statistical
Methods Institutional Research and Assessment
(i.e., Enrolment Patterns, Student Progress, Faculty Performance, Drop-out Rates, Recruitment Activities)
ISO 9000 Documentation Accreditation and Evaluation (i.e., Curriculum Analysis, Program Requirements, Facilities Analysis)
The Baldrige Award
Corporate
concerns regarding quality and challenges of the global markets
fostered the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Improvement Act of
1987.
The purposes of the Baldrige Award program are (a) to promote
awareness and understanding of the importance of quality improvement to
the nation's economy,(b) to recognize companies for exceptional quality
management and achievement, and (c) to share information on successful
quality strategies and benefits derived from implementation of these
strategies (Lee & Schniederjans, 1994). An important part of this
award is the willingness of the award winners to share and publish
information about their successful quality strategies with other U.S.
organizations. Only American companies are eligible. The first award was
presented in 1988. Many American companies that do not apply and some
foreign companies use the criteria for internal assessment. The criteria
help employers to assess both short and long-term strategic
improvements, develop or enhance planning for continuous improvement,
and increase customer satisfaction. The core values and concepts of the
Baldrige Award consist of seven categories:
1) leadership
2) Information analysis
3) Strategic quality planning
4) Human resource development and management
5) Management of process quality
6) Quality and operational results, and
7) Customer focus and satisfaction
(Fisher, 1994)
Conformance
to these criteria is reviewed annually to reflect lessons learned
during the evaluation process. The award is managed by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and administered by ASQC.
Applications are evaluated by a Board of Examiners nominated from the
quality experts of business, professional and trade organizations,
accrediting bodies, universities, and government (Bureau of Business
Practice, 1992).
The Baldrige Award criteria are a blueprint for
quality improvement in any organization, including educational
institutions (Kendrick, 1993a). The goals of the Baldrige Award are
customer satisfaction, customer retention, and market-share gain, which
parallel student satisfaction, student retention, and student
recruitment in academia (Heizer & Render, 1996).
In 1991,
approximately 235,000 applications for the prize were requested but only
106 were actually submitted. Companies use the award criteria as a
"quality blueprint" for improving and/or evaluating quality or TQM
programs, communicating better with suppliers and partners, and
educating and training their employees (Evans & Lindsay, 1993).
The Deming Prize
In 1951, the Deming Prize was established in Japan in honor of Dr. W. Edwards Deming.
It
is an avenue for disseminating knowledge of successful methods for
improvement. Its purpose is to award companies that continually apply
Company-Wide Quality Control (CWQC) based on statistical quality control
and are likely to continue doing so. Organizations do not necessarily
compete for the Deming Prize annually. Instead, attainment of the award
signifies that an organization has reached a certain quality standard.
There is no limit on the number of winners per year. The prize has
several categories including individuals, factories, and divisions or
small companies (Bush & Dooley, 1989). Similar to the Baldrige
Award and ISO 9000, top management must demonstrate commitment by
applying in order to qualify for the Deming Prize. The application
process is called "challenging."
The process takes three to five
years and managers must convince the Deming Prize Committee that they
are prepared for an on-site examination. Established experts serve as
examiners and audit the state of the quality system, paying particular
attention to the use of statistical methods and using a brief set of
"particulars" called the Deming Prize Application Checklist.
The judging criteria consist of ten major categories:
1) Policy and objectives,
2) Organization and its operations
3) Education and dissemination
4) Assembly and disseminating information
5) Analysis
6) Standardization
7) Control
8) Quality assurance
9) Results
10) Future plans
(Evans &Lindsay, 1993).
To
qualify for the award, top management must score at least 70 points and
no unit of the company may score less than 50 points. Companies that
have applied for the prize receive a report of the comments and
recommendations of the Deming Prize Committee. Reports contain findings
about desirable and undesirable aspects of quality operations and
include constructive suggestions(APQC, 1993).
The Deming Prize was
opened to non-Japanese companies in 1984. Florida Power and Light, one
of the largest electric utilities in the U.S., won the award in 1989.
Kansai Electric Power Company, a Deming Prize winner, was the major
“benchmark firm” that Florida Power and Light looked at when it began to
consider making a bid for the prize (Stratton, 1990). Deming (1986)
outlined his philosophy by listing 14 points for managing quality and
productivity. Cornesky et. al. (1991) indicated that Deming's 14 points
were originally written for the manufacturing sector, but they apply to
educational systems just as well.
Bradley (1993), Cornesky (1993),
English and Hill (1994), and Field (1994) have all applied Deming's 14
points in educational settings.
ISO 9000 Registration
Another
quality system that has helped corporations toward continuous
improvement is ISO 9000 Registration. The International Organization for
Standardization created the ISO 9000 series of quality standards in
1987. Companies that meet these standards are listed in a registry by
the auditing party as ISO 9000 companies. ISO's objective is to promote
development of standards world-wide to improve operating efficiency and
productivity and reduce costs (Hutchens, 1991). The ISO 9000 series
intends to stimulate trade by providing third-party assurance of an
organization's ability to meet specifications and perform to negotiated
standards. The focus is on basic process control of products and
services in regard to quality. The standards are not intended to certify
quality of a product or service or whether one is better than another
(Lamprecht, 1992); the standards relate to an organization's quality
system.
A company that has achieved ISO 9000 registration can attest
that it has a documented quality system that is fully deployed and
consistently followed. With a documented quality system, all the
knowledge of how and why work is performed will be part of the system.
So, if a company loses a key employee, his/her documented work can help
the company continue that employee's quality work.
Documentation is
kept up-to-date to reflect the dynamic nature of work procedure changes
to meet evolving customer demand. The same will be true in education; if
quality curriculum, course objectives, and administrative procedures
are well documented, change can have a positive effect on the entire
institution. The ISO 9000 standards tell companies what to do, but not
how to do it. The registration lasts for three years, subject to audits
every six months to confirm continued maintenance and operation of
quality systems. In Europe, "certification" is used more widely than
"registration," which is the preferred U.S. terminology (Peach, 1994).
There
is widespread interest in ISO 9000 because registration under ISO
quality standards is increasingly necessary to organizations that
compete internationally. Virtually all manufacturing organizations will
be expected to be registered under ISO 9001, 9002, or 9003 series. The
ISO fosters international trade by providing a set of standards with
world-wide credibility and acceptance. The rationale is to facilitate
trade by simplifying contracts and to obtain related savings with
reduced site inspections and audits.
According to the 1994 revised
standard, ISO 9001 is a model for quality assurance in design,
development, production, installation, and servicing. ISO9001 is the
most comprehensive standard, with 20 elements or functional clauses that
organizations must implement to achieve registration. It includes all
elements listed in ISO 9002 and ISO 9003 and also addresses design,
development, and servicing capabilities. It may be applied to
manufacturing as well as services such as construction or professional
services. ISO 9002 is a model for quality assurance in production,
installation, and servicing (Peach, 1994). The only distinction between
ISO 9001 and ISO 9002 is that ISO 9002 does not include the design
function and has only 19 elements.
ISO 9003 is a model for quality
assurance in final inspection and testing, and the least comprehensive
standard. It addresses only the requirements for detection and control
of problems during final inspection and testing. It has16 elements, ten
of which have less comprehensive requirements than do ISO 9001 and ISO
9002. Additional ISO 9000 series may be used as guidelines or auditing
standards for implementation of the ISO 9001, 9002, and 9003.
The
ISO 9000 standards provide both general guidelines and contractual
agreements for meeting quality requirements. Several countries have
adopted ISO9000 and attached special names to it: BS 5750 in Britain,
DIN ISO 9000 in Denmark, NS ISO 9000 in Norway, AS 3900 in Australia,
Q90 in the U.S., and Defense Standard AQAP-1, which has been used for
qualification of NATO defense suppliers.
In the European Community
(EC), the series is implemented as EN29000. These national and regional
implementations are essentially the same, although minor differences may
occur due to language translations (Chua,1992). First in Europe and now
on all continents, many countries require that firms that do business
within their borders be registered. Many U.S. organizations are
registered and many others are working to that end. To become
registered, an organization has to document to the satisfaction of a
third party registrar that its quality system addresses each requirement
of ISO 9000 and is maintained as business conditions change. The United
States is represented in the ISO organization by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). The Registrar Accreditation Board (RAB), an
affiliate of the ASQC, regulates the third party auditors who in turn
examine company practices.
The ISO 9000 series are clearly defined,
but how the quality standards are met is up to the organization. Clear
written procedures of all work processes affecting quality are required.
Documentation may be via written work instructions, electronic data, or
displayed as process flow charts. Compliance with this standard is
monitored by an independent third party that has demonstrated its
professional qualifications to a national body such as RAB(APQC, 1993).
Comparison of Registration and Awards Criteria
The
system implicit in a quality award should exhibit characteristics of
both customer satisfaction (Baldrige Award) and continuous improvement
(Baldrige Award, Deming Prize, and ISO 9000). Applicants for the award
should feel that they have been accurately and fairly judged and that
the assessment provides them with value in terms of increased self
knowledge of their quality system's strengths and areas for improvement.
The continuous improvement concept allows organizations to accept
modest beginnings and make incremental improvements toward excellence.
An
interesting fact about the Deming Prize is that the criteria did not
mention anything on customer satisfaction. Its emphasis is primarily on
rigorous statistical approaches and aggressive problem solving
throughout the organization. Since the benchmarks for TQM in the U.S.
are MBNQA and the Deming Prize, and more recently ISO 9000, Table 2
compares these two awards with ISO 9000 (Bush & Dooley, 1989;
Mahoney & Thor, 1994; Peach, 1994; Reimann & Hertz,1993; Walton,
1986). This comparison will facilitate understanding and provide a
means for productivity improvement among educators and administrators.
ISO
9000 is a quality system assessment based largely on traditional
quality control theory. The Deming Award emphasizes theory and
statistical practice toa greater degree than does MBNQA or the ISO 9000.
The Baldrige Award is more result-oriented and deals with method,
development, and outcomes (Fisher, 1994). MBNQA guidelines are a mixture
of traditional theories plus the theories developed by Crosby (1979),
Deming (1986), Feigenbaum (1983), Juran et. al. (1979), and others.
The
degree of prescriptiveness inherent in these three approaches to
quality is defined by what is to be done and how it is done. MBNQA
guidelines spell out what must be done to attain a high score.
ISO
9000 defines what should be done but provides little guidance regarding
how a system should be set up and operated (Peach, 1994). The Deming
Prize provides a set of guidelines, but many applicants have worked with
a previous winner to establish benchmarks and work on the details.
The
Human Resource Development and Management category is central to the
MBNQA's integrated approach to quality and operational improvement. It
includes human resource planning and management, employee involvement,
employee education and training, performance and recognition, and
employee well-being and satisfaction. ISO 9000 addresses human resource
issues through its training requirement (needs assessment, training
personnel qualifications, and maintenance of training records), and
documentation of operator instruction. This requirement does not include
consideration of the special factors in services management (Reimann
& Hertz, 1993). Contrasted with ISO 9000 and MBNQA, the Deming Prize
places minimal emphasis on human resource development. The main thrust
of the Deming Prize's education category is on how quality control is
taught, and to what extent statistical techniques are understood and
quality circle activities are utilized (Mahoney & Thor, 1994;
Walton,1986).
Table 2
Comparison of Baldrige Award, Deming Prize, and ISO 9000 Characteristics
Baldrige Award Deming Prize ISO 9000
Purpose Encourage sharing of
competitiveness
learning and drive this learning nationally. Awards companies that
continually apply company-wide quality control based on statistical
quality control Provide common basis for assuring buyers that specific
practices, including documentation conformity with provider's state
quality systems.
Focus Customer satisfaction
prevention of quality
problems
Statistical methods for prevention of quality problems Conformity to
practices specified in the registrant's own quality system.
Eligibility
Limited to U.S. companies only. Individuals, factories and divisions or
small companies worldwide Companies, divisions and facilities around
the world
Time
Frame 1 year cycles; renew after 5 years 2 to 5
years; preparation with JUSE; apply when ready Takes 6 to 12 months
depending on starting point and urgency
Information
Sharing
Winners required to share non-proprietary information on quality
strategies with other U.S. organizations Dissemination of information is
voluntary and minimal Registrants have no obligations to share
information with others
Award
Recipients Maximum of two awards per
category per year. Those who meet the standards receive the award. For
those that do not qualify, the exam process is extended up to 2 times
over 3 years.
Companies involved in international trade that wish to be acceptable as vendors to trade with members of EC.
Assessment Not a conformity assessment. Application
reviewed by 5-15 board
members.
Site visits for final contenders. Improvement evidence must be in
place. One page of guidelines (brief, broad, subjective) Examination
conducted by selected panel of senior members of JUSE. Evaluate quality
manual and working documents, site audit by select staff of registration
agency ensures conformity to stated practices and periodic re-audits
after registration.
Implications for Higher Education
University
programs such as vocational and technical education can be improved by
implementing the quality criteria. TQM allows internal and external
customers to communicate with faculty to continuously improve
educational processes. If parents, alumni, and students (internal
customers) are satisfied, they will recommend degree programs to others.
Likewise, if employers, taxpayers (in state supported institutions),
and graduate schools (external customers) are satisfied with the
graduates of
programs such as technology education, they may continue relationships and support.
Higher
education is complicated and cannot be changed overnight. TQM concepts
may be used to improve qualities of an educational system. In some
experimental classes at Carnegie Mellon University, students are
considered customers. Students participate in the planning of courses,
determining what is taught, designing syllabi, and assigning grades. The
TQM motto in education is learning about what the students need and
constantly improve the educational processes to deliver it consistently.
Some authors claim that students become better thinkers, problem
solvers, and team members ("Academe Gets," 1992). As Sutcliffe and
Pollock (1992) concluded, student perceptions of an institute should be
sought actively by all levels to ensure that as much as possible is
being done to enhance educational experiences within available
resources. None of these ideas is foreign to technology teacher
educators who foster student organizations and involve students in their
departments.
Customers have long been concerned regarding quality in
the administration of higher education institutions (Spanbauer, 1992).
According to Parnell (1990), quality standards in academic
administration, teaching, and research are essential to higher education
and of prime importance in satisfying goals. In dozens of schools, like
the University of Wisconsin at Madison, University of Wyoming, Columbia
University, and Oregon State University, TQM is applied to the
administrative side of organizations ("Academe Gets," 1992). In late
1992,efforts to implement TQM began at the University of North Carolina
in Charlotte(UNCC). UNCC made a pragmatic rather than philosophic
decision to proceed onlyin administrative areas, hoping that the efforts
could later be expanded intoother areas (Buch & Shelnutt, 1995).
Vandenberghe
(1995) stated that the Baldrige Award, the Deming Prize, and the ISO
9000 standards are new frontiers in quality management and can be
utilizedin educational settings. McCammond (1995) stated that quality
awards and standards will help students and faculty work as teams.
Alexander et al. (1987) stated that teams are the main structure of many TQM organizations.
TQM
student-faculty partnerships make it easier for students' voices to be
heard. Teamwork may provide friendly environments for more productive
educational experience.
Deming encouraged educators to create
environments in which strong relationships of mutual respect and trust
replace anxiety, suspicion, and separation. He believed that the
leadership of faculty, administrators and policy makers can empower
students as front-line workers in quality education. This will make for
continuous improvements in the work they do together (Evans &
Lindsay, 1993; Walton, 1986). These concepts are in keeping with
competency based or contractual learning and criterion testing, which
are widely used in technology teacher education.
In 1992, ISO issued
an updated guideline to the standard known as ISO 9004-2,which focused
on the service sector. An example of a service sector to which the
standard is applicable is education
( International Organization for
Standardization, 1992). To encourage TQM implementation in academia, a
new effort is underway to apply the MBNQA criteria to academic
organizations. As part of a pilot program, schools were invited to
submit applications, although no awards were to be given in 1995.
The
new criteria provide guidance for creating mechanisms for academic
institutions to implement TQM (Walker, 1995).Technology
teacher-educators should be at the forefront of this development.
Concepts
of industrial quality practices are being accepted by higher education
at a very slow rate. Seymour (1991) and Marchese (1991) documented
benefits and frustrations of campuses that were implementing TQM
systems. Walker (1995) indicated that entire universities will not
accept TQM with open arms. Some faculty or administrators continue to
resist TQM in education. Resistance may be attributed to unwillingness
to change old systems. In higher education, academic decisions have
traditionally been made through peer processes and collegial bodies.
Dominance of academics in decision making about quality is now being
directly challenged by the quality movement's emphasis on customers
(Lindsay, 1994).
Spanbauer (1992) cited reasons such as satisfied
customers, increased enrolment, falling attrition rates, and an improved
graduate placement as well as significant cost savings for overcoming
the resistance to TQM. Successful implementation and execution of an
industry-based quality management system for administration and faculty
can accomplish the quality objectives of education. Spanbauer (1992)
utilized industrial standards in organizing, critising, and improving
the administration of Fox Valley Technical College in Appleton,
Wisconsin. Results indicated that quality standards were effective and
substantial improvements were noted and documented. Industrial teacher
educators have the opportunity to facilitate
change to TQM environments. TQM concepts should be basic to administration and course content of
technology
teacher education programs. The implication, of course, is that staff
and educators must themselves exemplify the value system implicit in
these concepts. Industrial teacher educators should outwardly express
their inner commitment to the principles of TQM (Lloyd & Rehg,
1983). Knowing that teachers who would foster understandings of
technology in youth must understand contemporary practice in leading
edge organizations, they should embrace TQM for themselves and for
course content.
Conclusion
Globalization of markets,
heightened quality requirements, tough competition, and supplier
pressures have led to three parallel and visible quality thrusts
nationally and internationally. These thrusts are the Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Award in the United States, the Deming Application
Prize in Japan (currently open to other countries), and ISO 9000
Registration, which originated in Europe and has expanded
internationally. While ISO 9000 and MBNQA require support and some
involvement by senior administration, the Deming Prize initiative
requires substantial commitment of personal time and resources of senior
administrators in implementing a quality system. In the latter
initiative, quality cannot be just another aspect ofbusiness, it must
become the way business is conducted. These awards and preparation to
achieve them support the broader goal of TQM. Many times, organizations
apply for two or all three in order to achieve the highest degree of
TQM.
The need for assessing and improving quality in higher
education has been well-documented. It is illustrated by trends toward
implementing TQM, MBNQA, and Deming philosophies in higher education
(Bogue, 1992; Cornesky, McCool, Byrnes, & Weber, 1991;Kendrick,
1993b; Marchese, 1991; Seymour, 1991; Spanbauer, 1992). Institutions are
exploring the possibility of developing awards based on MBNQA. Each of
these awards and registration standards can be used to benchmark
continuous improvement of educational systems.
The use of major
quality systems is a positive step in the U.S. strategy toward global
competitive advantage in business, industry, and education. Regardless
of which route organizations take on their quality journey, these
quality thrusts (notwithstanding their minor differences) can provide
outstanding leverage for becoming world-class. As Harman (1994) quoted
David Kemp, the Australian Shadow Minister for Education,
“Education
has to be about excellence. If it is not about quality, then all
oureffort, all our expenditure will have been for nothing because we
will not onlyhave blighted the lives of our students, but damaged our
ability to compete andsurvive in a world which does not owe us a living.
We cannot have a world-classeconomy and a world-class living standard
without a world-class workforce. And we cannot have a world-class
workforce, without world-class education.” (p.40)
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Izadi is Associate Professor, Eastern Illinois University; Kashef is Assistant Professor, University of
Northern Iowa; and Stadt is Professor of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.
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